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Wheeler 


Whence  and  Whither  of  the 
Modern  Science  of  Language 


y 


UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA    PUBLICATIONS 
CLASSICAL     PHILOLOGY 

Vol.  1,  No.  3,  pp.  95-109  May  19,  1905 


THE   WHENCE    AND   WHITHER    OF   THE 
MODERN    SCIENCE    OF    LANGUAGE 


BENJ.  IDE  WHEELER 


BERKELEY 


THE  UNIVERSITY  PRESS 
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UNIVERSITY    OF    CALIFORNIA    PUBLICATIONS 
CLASSICAL     PHILOLOGY 

Vol.  1,  No.  3,  pp.  95-109  May   19,  1905 


THE  WHENCE  AND  WHITHER   OF  THE 
MODERN   SCIENCE   OF  LANGUAGE.1 

nv 
BENJ.   IDE  WHEELER. 


It  cannot  In'  the  purpose  of  Ihis  brief  paper  to  present  even 
in  outline  a  history  <>t'  the  science  of  language  in  the  century 
past:  it  can  undertake  only  to  set  forth  tin-  chief  motives  and 
directions  of  its  development. 

A  hundred  years  ago  this  year  Friedrich  von  Schlegel  was 
in  Paris  studying  Persian  and  the  mysterious,  new-found  San- 
skrit :  Franz  Bopp  was  a  thirteen-year  old  student  in  the  gymna- 
sium at  Aschaffenburg ;  Jacob  Grimm  was  studying  law  in  the 
University  of  Marburg.  And  yet  these  three  were  to  be  the  men 
who  should  find  the  paths  by  which  the  study  of  human  speech 
might  escape  from  its  age-long  wanderings  in  a  wilderness  with- 
out track  or  cairn  or  clue,  and  issue  forth  upon  oriented  high- 
ways as  a  veritable  science. 

Schlegel  the  Romanticist,  who  had  peered  into  Sanskrit  litera- 
ture in  the  interest  of  the  fantastic  humanism  modish  in  his  day, 
happened  to  demonstrate  in  Ueber  di<  Spraclu  und  Weisheit  <l<  r 
Inder,  1808,  beyond  cavil  the  existence  of  a  genetic  relationship 
between  the  chief  members  of  what  we  now  know  as  the  Indo- 
European  family  of  languages.  Bopp2  found  a  way  to  utilize 
this  demonstrated  fact  in  a  quest  which,  though  now  recognized 
as   mostly   vain,   incidentally   set    in   operation   the   mechanism   of 

comparative   grammar.     Gri i,!   under  the   promptings   of   a 

national   enthusiasm,   sought    after   the  sources  of   the   German 


'Address   delivered   at    the   St.    Louis   Congress   of    Aits  and   Sciences, 
October,    1904. 

'First    \Mirk:    Conjiigationssystem    ■  '■  r    Sansiritsprache,    lsiii. 
'Deutsche    Grammatik,    Vol.    1     i  1819). 


705012 


96  University  of  California  Publications!    [Ci^ass.  Phu* 

national  life,  and,  finding  in  language  as  in  lore  the  roots  of  the 
present  deep  planted  in  the  past,  laid  the  Foundations  and  sel 
forth  the  method  of  historical  grammar.  The  grafting  of  com- 
parative grammar  upon  the  stuck  of  historical  grammar  gave  it 

w  ider  range  and  yielded  the  scientific  '_rr; ar  of  the  nineteenth 

century.  The  method  of  comparative  grammar  is  merely  auxil- 
iary i"  historical  grammar;  it  establishes  determinations  of  fad 
Car  behind  the  poinl  of  earliesl  record  and  enables  historical 
grammar  to  push  its  Inns  of  descenl  in  the  form  of  'dotted  lines' 
far  bach  into  the  unwritten  past. 

It  was  the  discovery  of  Sanskrit  to  the  attention  and  use  of 
European  scholars  a1  the  close  of  the  eighteenth  century  that 

gav< casion  to  an  effective  use  of  the  comparative  method  and 

a  consequent  establishment  of  ;i  veritable  comparative  grammar. 

Bu1    in   two  other  distinct    ways   it    exercised  a   notable   inline ■ 

upon  the  study  of  language.     First,  it  offered  to  observation  a 

language    whose    Structure   yielded    itself    readily    to    analysis    ill 

terms  of  the  adaptation  of  its  formal  mechanism  to  the  expres- 
sion of  modifications  of  thought,  and  thus  cave  an  encourage- 
ment   to    a    dissection    of    words    in    the    interest    of    tracing    the 

principles  of  their    formation.      St d,   the   Hindoo    national 

grammar  itself  presented  to  Western  scholars  an  illustration  of 
accuracy  and  completeness  in  collecting,  lifying,  and  report- 
ing the  facts  of  ;i  language,  especially  such  as  related  to  phon- 
ology, inflexion,  and  word-formation,  that    involved  the  i ssity 

of  .-i  complete  revolution  in  the  whole  attitude  of  grammatical 
procedure.  The  discovery  of  Panini  and  the  Praticakhyas  meant 
far  more  to  the  science  of  Language  than  the  discovery  of  the 
Vedas.  The  grammar  of  the  Greeks  had  marked  a  path  so  clear 
and  established  ;i  tradition  so  strong,  guaranteed  in  a  prestige  so 
high,  that  the  linguist ics  of  the  West  through  all  the  generations 
faithfully  abode  in  the  way.  The  grammatical  categories  once 
taught  and  established  became  the  irrefragable  moulds  of  gram- 
matical thought,  and  constituted  a  system  so  complete  in  its 
enslaving  power  that  if  any  man  ever  suspected  himself  in  bond- 
age he  was  yet  unable  to  identify  his  bonds. 

The  Creeks  had  addressed  themselves  to  linguistic  reflexion 
in  connection  with  their  study  of  tin-  content  and  the  forms  of 


Vol.  ij       Wheeler.     Tht  Modern  Scienct  of  Language.  97 

thought ;  grammar  arose  as  the  handmaiden  of  philosophy.  They 
assumed,  without  consciously  and  expressly  formulating  it  as  a 
doctrine,  that  language  is  the  inseparable  shadow  of  thought, 
and  therefore  proceeded  without  more  ado  to  find  in  its  structure 
and  parts  replicas  of  the  substances  and  moulds  of  thought. 
They  sought  among  the  facts  of  language  for  illustrations  of 
theories;  it  did  not  occur  to  them  to  collect  the  facts  and  organize 
them  to  yield  their  own  doctrine.  Two  distinct  practical  uses 
finally  brought  the  chief  materials  of  rules  and  principles  to 
formulation  in  the  guise  of  a  system  of  descriptive  grammar; 
first,  the  interpretation  of  Homer  and  the  establishment  of  a 
correct  text ;  second,  the  teaching  of  Greek  to  aliens,  and  the 
establishment  of  a  standard  by  which  to  teach.  These  practical 
uses  came  in  however  rather  as  fortunate  opportunities  for  prac- 
tical application  of  an  established  discipline  than  as  the  motives 
to  its  creation.  With  the  Hindoos  it  was  the  direct  reverse. 
They  had  a  sacred  language  and  sacred  texts  rescued  from  ear- 
lier days  by  means  of  oral  tradition.  The  meaning  of  the  texts 
had  grown  hazy,  but  the  word  was  holy,  and  even  though  it 
remained  but  an  empty  shell  to  human  understanding,  it  was 
pleasing  to  the  gods  and  had  served  its  purpose  through  the 
generations  to  bring  gods  and  men  into  accord,  and  must  be  pre- 
served :  likewise  the  language  of  ritual  and  comment  thereon, 
which,  as  the  possession  of  a  limited  class,  required  not  only  to  be 
protected  from  overwhelming  beneath  the  floods  of  the  vernac- 
ular but  demanded  to  be  extended  to  the  use  of  wider  circles  in 
the  dominant  castes.  Sanskrit  had  already  become  a  moribund 
or  semi-artificial  language,  before  grammar  laid  hold  upon  it  to 
continue  and  extend  it.  But  from  the  outstart  the  Hindoo  gram- 
marian sat  humbly  at  the  feet  of  language  to  learn  of  it,  and 
never  assumed  to  lie  its  master  or  its  guide.  Inasmuch  as  the 
language  had  existed  and  been  perpetuated  primarily  as  a  thing 
of  the  living  voice  and  not  of  ink  and  paper,  and  had  been  used 
to  reach  the  ears  rather  than  the  eyes  of  the  divine,  it  followed 
in  a  measure  remotely  true  of  no  other  grammatical  endeavor 
that  the  Hindoo  grammar  was  compelled  to  devote  itself  to  the 
most  exactingly  accurate  report  upon  the  sounds  of  the  language. 
The  niceties  of  phonetic  discrimination  represented  in  the  alpha- 


'is  University  of  California  Publications.    [Class. Phil. 

bel  itself,  the  refinements  of  observation  involved  in  the  reports 
on  accenl  and  the  phenomenon  of  pluti;  the  formulation  of  the 
principles  of  sentence  phonetics  in  the  rules  <>l'  sandhi ;  the  obser- 
vations on  the  physiology  of  speech  scattered  through  the  Prdti- 
cdkhyas  are  all   brillianl    illustrations   of   the    Hindoo's   direct 

approach  to  the  real  substance  of  living  s|m h.     None  of  the 

aational  systems  of  grammar,  the  Chinese,  the  Egyptian,  the 
Assyrian,  the  Greek,  or  the  Arabic  had  anything  to  show  remotely 
comparable  to  this;  and  up  to  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth 
century,  despite  all  the  long  endeavors  expended  on  Greek  and 

Hebrew  and  Latin,  nothing  remotely  like  it  had  I n  known  to 

the  Western  world.    The  Greek  gri larians  had  really  never 

stunned  the  barriers  of  written  language;  they  were  mostly  con- 
cerned with  establishing  and  teaching  literary  forms  of  the  lan- 
guage. Even  when  they  dealt  with  the  dialects,  they  had  the 
Standardized  literary  types  thereof  before  their  eyes  rather  than 
the  spoken  forms  ringing  in  their  ears.  When  the  einmmars  of 
Colebrooke  (1805),  of  Carej  (1806),  and  of  Wilkins  (1808) 
opened  the  knowledge  of  Sanskrrl  to  European  scholars,  it 
involved  nothing  short  of  a  grammal ical  revelation,  and  prepared 
the  way  for  an  ultimate  remodeling  of  language-study  nothing 
short  of  a  revolution.  Though  these  Hindoo  lessons  in  accurate 
phonetics  as  the  hasis  of  sure  knowledge  and  safe  procedure  had 
their  immediate  and  unmistakable  influence  upon  Hie  scientific 
work  id'  the  first  half-century,  their1  full  acceptance  tarried  until 
the  second  half  was  well  on  its  way.     Even  Jakob  Grimm,  whose 

service  in  promoting  the  historical  study  of  pi logy  must  he 

rated  with  the  highest,  was  si  ill  so  Mind  to  the  necessity  of  pho 
netics  as  to  express  Hie  view  that  historical  grai ar  could  he 

excused  from  much  attention  to  tin-  "hunte  win-war  mundart- 
licher  lautverhaltnisse, "  and  though  von  Raumer  in  his  />/<  Aspi- 
ration mill  dti  Lii  ill  n  rsrliii  hit  nil  (1837)  had  not  only  set  forth 
in  all  clearness  the  theoretical  necessity  of  a  phonetic  hasis.  hut 
given  practical  illustration  thereof  in  the  material  with  which  he 

was  dealing,  it  still  was  possible  as  late  as  1868  for  Scherer  in  his 
GeschichU  der  deutschen  Sprache  justly  to  deplore  that  "only 
rarely  is  a  philologist  found  who  is  willing  to  enter  upon  phonetic 


'Cf.  H.  Oertel,  Lectures  on  the  Study  of  Language,  pp.  30  IV  (  1901  |. 


Vol.  i.|      Wheeler. — The  Modern  Science  of  Language.  99 

discussion."  The  phonetic  treatises  of  Briicke1  (1849  and  1866) 
and  of  Merkel  (185*5  and  1866)2  failed,  though  excellent  of  their 
kind,  to  bring  the  subject  within  the  range  of  philological  inter- 
est and  it  remained  for  Eduard  Sievers  in  his  Grundzugt  der 
LautphysioUgie  (1876)  and  Grundzuge  der  Phonetik  (1881)  by 
stating-  phonetics  more  in  terms  of  phonology  to  bridge  the  gap 
and  establish  phonetics  as  a  constituent  and  fundamental  por- 
tion of  the  science  of  language.  The  radical  change  of  character 
assumed  by  the  science  in  the  last  quarter  of  the  century  is  due 
as  much  to  the  consummation  of  this  union  as  to  any  one  influ- 
ence. 

But  it  was  not  phonetics  alone  that  the  Indian  grammarians 
were  able  to  teach  to  the  West;  they  had  developed  in  their 
processes  of  identifying  the  roots  of  words  a  scientific  phonology 
that  was  all  but  an  historical  phonology.  In  some  of  its  appli- 
cations it  was  that  already,  for  in  explaining  the  relations  to 
each  other  of  various  forms  of  a  given  root  as  employed  in  dif- 
ferent words,  even  though  the  explanation  was  intended  to  serve 
the  purposes  of  word  analysis  and  not  of  sound-theory,  the  gram- 
marians virtually  formulated  in  repeated  instances  what  we  now 
know  as  "phonetic  laws."  'Flu-  recognition  of  gum  and  vrddhi, 
which  antedates  Panini,  must,  rank  as  one  of  the  most  brilliant 
inductive  discoveries  in  the  history  of  linguistic  science.  The 
theory  involved  became  the  basis  of  the  treatment  of  the  Indo- 
European  vocalism.  The  first  thorough-going  formulation,  that 
of  Schleicher  in  his  Compendium  (1861  ).  was  conceived  entirely 
in  the  Hindoo  sense,  and  it  was  to  the  opportunity  which  this 
formulation  offered  of  overseeing-  the  material  and  the  problems 
involved  that  we  owe  the  brilliant  series  of  investigations  by  Georg 
Curtius  (Spaltung  <l<s  a-Lautes,  1864),  Amelung3  (1871,  ls?:<. 
1875),  Osthoff  (N-Declination,  1876),  Brugmann (Nasalis  sonans. 


E.    Brucke,  Untersuehungen    iiber   die    Lautbadung   un<l   das   riaturliche 

System  der  Sprachlaute  (1849);  Griindzuge  der  Physiologic  mid  Kvstematik 
der  Sprachlaute  (1856). 

:C.   L.    Merkel,   Anatomie   und   Physiologie   des   mensc  lilu-lien    Stinnn-und 
Sprachorgana   (1856);   Physiologie  der  nieiis.-liliehen  Sprache   (1866). 

A.   Amelung:     Die   Bildung   der  Tempusstamme  durcb    Vbcalsteigerung 
mi  Deutsehen,  Berlin,  1871.  Erwiderung.  KZ.  XXII,  361  IV.  completed  July, 

1873,  published  1874,  after  the  author's  death.     Der  TJrsprung  der  deutsehen 

a  Voeale,  Haupt's  Zeitsehr.  XVI11.  161  ff.  (is;:,). 


100  University  of  California  Publications.    [Class.Pito. 

1-Tii;  GeschichU  der  stammabstufenden  Declination,  1876),  Col- 
lit/.  (Veber  du  Annahnu  mehrerer  grundsprachUchen  a-Laute, 
1878),  Joh.  Scluiiiilt  (Zwei  ariscJu  a-Laute,  1VT:»  .  which  led  n|> 
step  by  step  steadily  and  unerringly  to  the  definite  proof  thai  the 
[ndo-European  vocalism  was  to  be  understood  in  terms  of  the 
Greek  rather  than  the  Sanskrit.  These  articles,  written  in  the 
period  of  intensest  creative  activity  the  science  has  known,  rep- 
resenl  in  the  cases  of  four  of  the  scholars  mentioned,  viz..  Cur- 
tius.  Amelung,  Brugmann,  Collitz,  the  masterpii s  of  the  scien- 
tific lit'''  of  each.  Though  dealing  with  a  single  problem,  they 
combined  both  through  the  results  they  achieved  and  the  method 
and  outlook  they  embodied  to  give  character  and  direction  to 
the  science  of  the  next  quarter-century.  Karl  Verner's  famous 
article,  Eini  Ausnahmt  der  ersten  Lautverschiebung,  KX. 
XXIII,  97   IV.  July,   1875),  which  proved  of  great   importance 

among  other  things  in  establishing  i onection  between   I.  E. 

ablaut  and  accent,  belongs  to  this  period;  and  Brugmann 's  arti- 
cle, Nasalis  sonans,  which  served  more  than  any  other  work  to 
clear  the  way  for  the  now  prevailing  view  of  ablaut,  was  influ- 
enced by  Verner's  article,  which  was  by  a  few  months  its  prede- 
cessor. Hot  li  articles,  it  is  worthy  of  noting,  were  distinctly  influ- 
enced by  the  new  phonetic:  Verner's,  it  would  appear,  chiefly  by 
Briicke,  Brugmann 's,  through  a  suggestion  of  Osthoff's,  by  Sie- 
vers.  whose  Lautphysiologit  had  .just  appeared  within  the  same 
year.  The  full  effect  upon  Western  science  of  the  introduction 
of  the  Indian  attitude  toward  language  study  appears  therefore 
to  have  been  realized  only  with  the  last  quarter  of  the  century. 

More  prompt  than  the  response  of  European  science  to  the 
teachings  of  Hindoo  phonetics  and  phonology  had  been  the 
acceptance  of  the  Hindoo  procedure  in  word  analysis,  especially 
with  relation  to  suffixes  and  inflexional  endings.     The  centuries 

id'  study  of  Creek  and  Latin  had  yielded  no  clue  to  any  classifi- 
cation or  assorting  of  this  material  according  to  meaning  or  func- 
tion. The  medieval  explanation  of  dominicus  as  domini  custos 
was  as  good  a->  any.  Besnier  in  his  essay.  /,</  scienci  des  Ety- 
mologies i  1694),  counted  it  the  mark  of  a  sound  etymologist  that 
lie  restrict  his  attention  to  the  roots  id'  words,  for  to  bother  with 
tin'  other   parts  would   he   "useless  and   ludicrous."      And   when 


Vni..  i|       Wheeler. —  Tin   Modern  Srif-iia.  of  Language.  101 

Home  Took.-  in  the  Diversions  of  Purley.  II.  429  1786-1805), 
just  before  the  sunrise,  wrote  the  startling  words:  "All  those 
common  terminations  in  any  Language  .  .  .  are  themselves 
separate  words  with  distinct  meanings,"  and  i  II,  454  :  "Adjec- 
tives with  such  terminations  (i.e.,  ly,  ous,  ful,  some,  ish,  etc.  i  arc. 
in  truth,  all  compound  words" ;  and  when  he  flung  out  like  a  chal- 
lenge the  analysis  of  Latin  ibo,  'I  shall  go.'  as  three  letters  con- 
taining three  words,  viz.  i,  'go,'  6  (jSo«5X.o/uai)'will,' o(ego)  'I.'  qo 
one  seems  to  have  been  near  enough  to  the  need  of  such  instruc- 
tion to  know  whether  or  not  he  was  to  be  taken  seriously:  for  the 
words  bore  no  fruit,  and  only  years  afterward,  when  Bopp's  doc- 
trine had  been  recognized,  were  they  disinterred  as  antiquarian 
curiosities.  Eleven  years  later,  in  the  full  light  of  the  Sanskrit 
grammar,  Bopp  published  his  Conjugationssystem,  and  the  clue 
had  been  found.  To  be  sure.  Bopp  was  misguided  in  his  belief 
that  he  could  identify  each  element  of  a  word-ending  with  a 
significant  word,  and  assign  to  it  a  distinct  meaning,  but  he  had 
found  the  key  to  an  analysis  having  definite  historical  value  and 
permitting  the  identification  of  such  entities  as  mode-sign,  tense- 
sign,  personal-endings,  etc.  The  erroneous  portion  of  his  doc- 
trine, based  upon  his  conception  of  the  Indo-European  as  an 
agglutinative  type  of  speech,  dragged  itself  as  an  encumbrance 
through  the  first  half-century  of  the  science,  and.  though  gasping, 
still  lived  in  the  second  edition  of  Curtius'  Verbum  ;  1877  I.  This. 
along  with  many  other  mechanical  monstrosities  of  its  kind,  was 
gradually  banished  from  the  linguistic  arena  by  the  saner  views 
of  the  life-habits  of  language  which  had  their  rise  from  linguistic 
psychology  as  a  study  of  the  relations  of  language  to  the  hearing 
as  well  as  speaking  individual  and  the  relations  of  the  individual 
to  the  speech  community,  and  which  asserted  themselves  with 
full  power  in  the  seventies. 

Bopp  had  from  the  beginning  devoted  himself  to  language- 
study,  not  as  an  end  in  itself,  but.  as  we  know  from  his  teacher 
and  sponsor  Windischmann,1  as  well  as  infer  from  the  direction 
anil  spirit  of  his  work,  he  hoped  to  be  able  •"in  this  way  to  pene- 
trate into  the  mysteries  of  the  human  mind  and  learn  something 


'Introduction  to  Bopp's  Conjugationssystem  iter  Sanskritsprache,  p.  iv. 
I  W6). 


102  University  of  California  Publications.    [Class.Phil. 

of  its  nature  and  its  laws."  Se  was  therefore  unmistakably  of 
the  school  of  the  <  (reeks,  oot  of  the  Hindoos;  for  the  Gi k  gram- 
marian in  facing  language  asks  the  question  'why,'  grammar 
being  to  him  philosophy,  whereas  the  1 1  i ■  i < ]< >•  •  asks  the  question 
'what,'  grammar  being  to  him  ;i  science  after  1 1 1  *  -  manner  of  whal 
we  call  the  'natural  sciences.'  There  is  indeed  but  slight  reason 
for  the  common  practice  of  dating  the  beginning  of  the  modern 
science  of  language  with  Bopp,  aside  from  the  one  simple  result 
lit'  his  activity,  which  must  in  stricl  logic  be  treated  as  merely 
incidental  thereto,  namely,  thai  he  gave  a  practical  illustration  of 
the  possibility  of  applying  the  comparative  method  for  widening 
the  scope  and  enriching  the  results  of  historical  grammar. 

As  Bopp  had  tried  to  use  tin mparative  method  in  deter- 
mining the  true  and  original  meanings  of  the  formative  elements. 
so  iliil  liis  later  contemporary,  Augusl  Friedrich  Pott1  (1802- 
1887)  undertake  to  use  it  in  finding  out  the  original  meaning 
of  words.  The  search  for  the  etymology  or  real  meaning  of  words 
had  been  a  favorite  and  mostly  bootless  exercise  of  all  European 
grammarians  from  the  Greek  philosophers  down,  having  its  orig- 
inal animus  ami  more  or  less  confessedly  its  continuing  power  in 
the  broadly  human,  though  barely  on  occasion  half-formulated 
conviction,  that  words  and  their  values  belong  by  some  mysteri- 
ous tie  naturally  to  each  other.      In  the  instinet  to  begin  his  task 

Pott  was  still  with  the  traditions  of  the  Greeks  ami  the  Greco- 
Europeans,  bul  in  developing  it  he  was  guided  into  new  paths 

by  two  forces  that  had  arisen  since  tin ntury  opened.     Under 

the  guidance  of  the  comparative  method,  whereby  the  vocabu- 
laries of  demonstrably  cognate  languages  now  assumed  a  deter- 
minate relation  to  each  other,  he  came  unavoidably  to  the  recog- 
nition of  certain  normal  correspondences  of  sounds  between  the 
different  tongues.  < >n  the  other  hand,  in  almost  entire  indepen 
dence  hereof.  Jakob  Grimm  in  the  pursuit  of  his  historical 
method  had  formulated  the  regularities  of  the  mutation  of  eon- 
sonants  in  the  Teutonic  dialects  and  had  set  them  forth  in  a 
second  edition  of  the  first  volume  of  his  grammar,  appearing  in 
1822,     In  all  this  was  contained  a  strong  encourage nt  as  well 


K.    I'.   Pott  :    Etymologische   ForschuDgen,  l'  vols.  Lenigo,  1833-3t>;   2nd 

.-■lit.  (J  M.ls..  ]s5!»-7G. 


Vol.11       Wheeler. — Tin  Modern  Scienct  of  Language.  103 

as  warning  to  apply  these  new  definite  tests  to  every  etymological 
postulate,  and  therewith  arose  under  Pott's  hands  the  beginnings 

of  a  scientific  etymology.     It  was  a  first   promise  of  deliverance 
from  a  long  wilderness  of  caprice. 

The  positivistie  attitude  which  had  been  gradually  infused 
into  language-study  under  the  influence  of  the  Hindoo  grammar 
anally  readied  its  extremesl  expression  in  the  works  of  August 
Schleicher  1821-1868).  The  science  of  language  he  treated 
under  the  guise  of  a  natural  science.  Language  became  isolated 
from  the  speaking  individual  or  the  speaking  community  to  an 
extenl  unparalleled  in  any  of  his  predecessors  or  successors,  and 
was  viewed  as  an  organism  having  a  life  of  its  own  and  laws  of 
growth  or  decline  within  itself.  Following  the  analogies  of  the 
natural  sciences  and  trusting  to  the  inferred  laws  of  growth,  he 
ventured  to  reconstruct  from  the  scattered  data  of  the  cognate 
Indo-European  languages  the  visible  form  of  the  mother  speech. 
His  confidence  in  the  character  of  language  as  a  natural  growth 
made  him  the  first  great  systematizer  and  organizer  of  the  mate- 
rials of  Indo-European  comparative  grammar  {Compendium  il<  r 
vt  rgli  "In  ndt  n  (hunt/until;,  1861  i  ;  as  confidence  in  the  unerring 
uniformity  of  the  action  of  the  laws  of  sound  made  Karl  Brug- 
mann  the  second  [Grundriss  der  vergleichenden  Grammatik, 
1886-1892). 

It  is  not  by  accident  that  the  first  one  to  voice  outright  the 
dogma  of  the  absoluteness  (Ausnahmslosigkeit)  of  the  laws  of 
sound  was  a  pupil  of  Schleicher,  August  Leskien  (Die  Declina- 
tion in  Slavisch-litauisch&n  und  Germanisclien  xxviii.  1876). 
The  use  of  this  dogma  as  a  norm  and  test  in  the  hands  of  a  sie- 
nally  active  and  gifted  body  of  scholars  who  followed  the  leader- 
ship of  Leskien  and  were  known  under  the  title  of  the  Leipziger 
Srliuli  or  the  Junggrammatiker,  and  the  adherence  to  it  in 
practice  of  many  others  who  did  not  accept  the  theory  involved, 
— a  use  which  was  undoubtedly  greatly  stimulated  by  Verner's 
discovery  (1875)  that  a  great  body  of  supposed  exceptions  to 
Grimm's  law  were  in  reality  obedient  to  law.  gave  t"  the  science 
in  the  two  following  decades,  along  with  abundance  of  results, 
an  objectivity  of  attitude  and  procedure  and  a  firmness  of  struc- 
ture that  may  fairly  be  said  to  represent  the  consummation  of 


In}  I  niversity  of  California  Publications.    [Clabb.Phil. 

thai  positivisl  tendency  which  we  have  soughl  to  identify  with 
the  influence  of  Hindoo  grammar.  This  movement,  however, 
derived  its  impulse  by  do  means  exclusively  through  Schleicher. 
A  new  stream  had  meanwhile  blended  its  waters  with  the  current. 
The  psychology  of  language  as  8  study  of  the  relations  of  Language 
to  the  speaking  individual,  thai  is.  of  the  conditions  under  which 
language  is  received,  retained,  and  reproduced,  and  of  the  rela- 
tions of  the  individual  to  his  speech  community,  had  been  brought 
into  play  preeminently  through  the  lahorsof  Heymann  Steinthal, 
who,  though  as  a  psychologisl  a  follower  of  Herbart,  must  be 
felt  in  represent  in  general  .-is  ;i  linguisl  the  attitude  toward 
Language  stud}  firsl  established  by  Willi. •Im  v.  Humboldt.  Wil- 
liam D.  Whitney  shows  in  his  writings  on  general  linguistics  the 

indue if  Steinthal,  as  well  as  good  schooling  in  the  grammar 

of  the  Hindoos  and  much  good  common  ^nsr.  His  Lectures  on 
Languagt  and  tin  Study  of  Languagt  (1867)  and  tin-  Lift  and 
Growth  of  Languagi  (1875)1  helped  chase  many  a  goblin  from 
the  sky.     Scherer's  OeschichU   der  deutschen    Spracht    (1868), 

combined  more  than  any  book  of  its  day  the  influe b  of  new 

lines  of  endeavor,  and  especially  gave  hearing  in  the  new  work 
in  the  psychology  ;is  well  as  the  physiology  of  speech.  To  this 
period  (1865-1880),  under  the  influence  of  the  combination  of 
the  psychological  with  ihr  physiological  point  of  view,  belongs 
the  establishmenl  of  scientific  common  sense  in  the  treatmenl  of 
Language.  By  virtue  of  this.  ;is  it  were,  binocular  vision,  lan- 
guage was  thrown  up  into  relief,  isolated,  and  object ivised  as  it 
had  never  been  before.  Old  half-mystical  notions,  such  as  the 
belief  in  a  period  of  upbuilding  in  language  and  a  period  of 
decay, — all  savoring  of  Hegel,  and  the  consequenl   fallacy  that 

ancient  lamjmeje^  display  a  keener  speech  consciousness  than  the 
modern, — S] dily  faded  away.  The  center  of  interest  trans- 
ferred itself  from  ancient  and  written  types  of  speech  to  the 
modern  and  Living.     .Men  came  to  see  that  vivisection  rather  than 


II.  Steinthal:   Der  I  rsprung  det   Sprache,  im  Zusammenhang    mil  den 

I  aUes    Wissens,    1851;    Characteristil    der   hauptsachlichsten 

Typen  des  Sprocft&awes,   L860;   Einleitvng   in  die  Psychology*    und  Sprach- 

nschaft,    1881;    Gesch,   der  Sprocket!.,  h,  i   ,i,  n   Griechen    und   Somern, 

1863,     L890-91.     AJbo  editor  «itli   Lazarus  of  the  Zeitschrifi   fur   Votker- 

psychologit   un,i  Sprachwissenechaft,  from  1859. 


vol.1]       Wheeler.— Tht  Modern  Science  of  Language.  105 

morbid  anatomy  must  supply  the  method  and  spirit  of  linguistic 
research.  The  germs  of  a  new  idea  affecting  the  conditions  under 
which  cognate  languages  may  be  supposed  to  have  differentiated 
out  of  a  mother  speech,  and  conceived  in  terms  of  the  observed 
relations  of  dialects  to  languages,  were  infused  by  Johannes 
Schmidt's  Venuandtschaftsverhaltnisse  der  mdogerman.  Sprach- 
•■//(1872).  The  rigid  formulas  of  Schleicher's  Stammbuum  melted 
away  before  Schmidt's  Wellentheorit  and  its  line  of  successors 
down  to  the  destructive  theories  of  Kretschmer's  Einleitung  in 
ili,  Geschichtt  der  griech.  Sprache  (1896).  Herein  as  in  many 
another  movement  of  the  period  we  trace  the  results  of  applying 
the  lessons  of  living  languages  to  the  understanding  of  the  old. 
A  remarkable  document  thoroughly  indicative  of  what  was  mov- 
ing in  the  spirit  of  the  times  was  the  Introduction  to  Osthoff  and 
Brugmann's  Morphologische  Untersuchungen,  Vol.  I  (1878).  But 
the  gospel  of  the  period,  and  its  theology  for  that  matter,  was 
most  effectively  set  forth  in  Hermann  Paul's  Principien  der 
Sprachgeschichte  (1st  edit.,  1880),  a  work  that  has  had  more 
influence  upon  the  science  than  any  since  Jakob  Grimm's 
Deutsche  Grammatik.  Paul  was  the  real  successor  of  Steinthal. 
He  also  represented  the  strictest  sect  of  the  positivists  in  histor- 
ical grammar.  As  a  consequence  of  the  union  in  Paul  of  the  two 
tendencies,  his  work  acquires  its  high  significance.  He  estab- 
lished the  reaction  from  Schleicher's  treatment  of  language  sci- 
ence as  a  natural  science;  he  showed  it  to  be  beyond  peradven- 
t  n it*  one  of  the  social  sciences,  and  set  forth  the  life  conditions  of 
Language  as  a  socio-historical  product. 

The  work  of  the  period  dominated  by  Paul  and  the  neo-gram- 
marians,  as  well  as  the  theories  of  method  proclaimed,  show,  how- 
ever, that  the  two  factors  just  referred  to  had  not  reached  in  the 
scientific  thought  and  practice  of  the  day  a  perfect  blending.  A 
well-known  book  of  Osthoff's  bears  the  title  Das  physiologischi 
mill  psychologist  Moment  in  der  sprachlichen  Formenbildung 
(1879).  The  title  is  symptomatic  of  the  times.  The  physiolog- 
ical and  the  psychological  were  treated  as  two  rival  interests 
vying  for  the  control  of  language.  What  did  not  conform  to  the 
phonetic  laws,  in  case  it  were  not  a  phenomenon  of  mixture,  was 
to  be  explained  if  possible  as  due  to  analogy.    This  dualism  could 


106  University  of  California  Publications.    [Class.Phil. 

be  expected  i"  be  bul  a  temporary  device  like  the  Betting  up  of 

Satan  over  againsl  God,  in  order  to  accounl  for  the  existen P. 

sin.  A  temporary  device  it  has  proved  itself  to  be.  The  close 
of  the  firsl  century  of  the  modern  science  of  language  is  tending 
toward  a  unitary  conception  of  the  various  forms  of  historical 
change  in  language.    The  process  by  which  the  language  of  the 

individual  adjusts  itself  to  tl mnity  s] eh  differs  in  kind 

mi  whit  from  thai  by  which  dialed  yi<  Ids  to  the  standard  lan- 
guage of  the  larger  community.  The  process  by  which  the 
products  of  form-association  or  analogy  establish  themselves  in 
language  differ  in  no  whit  in  land  from  thai  by  which  new  pro- 
nunciations of  words,  i.i  .  new  sounds  make  their  way  to  general 

acceptance.     The  pi ss  by  which  loan-elements  from  an  alien 

tongue  adjust  themselves  to  use  in  a  given  language  differs  psj 

chologically  and  fundamentally  no  whit  fro ither  of  the  four 

pr ssses  mentioned.     In  fad  they  all,  all  five,  are  phenomena 

of  'mixture  in  language.11  The  process,  furthermore,  by  which  a 
sound-change  in  one  word  tends  to  spread  from  word  to  word 

and  displace  the  old  throughoul  the  entire  vocalinlary  of  the  lan- 
guage is  also  a  process  of  'mixture.'-'  and  depends  for  its  mo- 
mentum in  last  analysis  upon  a  proportionate  analogy  after  the 
same  essential  model  as  that  by  which  an  added  sound  or  a  suffix 
is  carried  by  analogy  from  word  to  word.     All  the  movements 

of  historical  chance  in  language  respond  to  the  social  motive; 
they  .ill  represent  in  some  form  the  absorption  of  the  individual 
into  the  community  mass.  It  has  therewith  become  evident  that 
there  is  nothing  physiological  in  language  thai  is  not  psycholog- 
ically  conditioned   and   controlled.      So  then    it    appears   that    the 


■See  O.  Bremer.  Deutsche  Phonetik,  Vorworl  \  It.     L893) ;  1'..  I.  Wheeler, 
Causes  of  Oniformitj   in   Phonetic  Change;  Transac.  Amer.   Philol.  Ai 
XXIII,    1    ff.    (  190]  I. 

,\  point  oi   view  involving  the  recognition  of  ■  <  more  recondite  form  of 
speech-mixture  is  that  first  suggested  by  '•■  I.  Ascoli   (Sprachwissensch 
l,,!,,    Briefe,  pp.  17  ff.,   Issi  86;  trsl.   1887),  nbereby  the  initiation  of  pho 
netie  and  syntactical  changes  in   language,  and  ultimately  the  differentia 

tii. ii  ni'  dialects  .-in. I  even  of  languages  may  :i tion  to  languages  oi 

ili.'  substratum,  .-is  they  may  !"■  termed,  i.e.,  prior  and  ■  I isus.-. I  languages  of 

peoples  or  tribes  who  have  through  the  tut.'  of  conquest  or  assunilal b< 

absorbed  int..  another  s| Ii  community.     Notably  has  this  poinl   of  view 

urged  by   II.   Ilirt   (Indog.   I  ■.   l\'.  :'.''.   ff.,    1894),  and   by 

We, •:■  pp.  99  it.  i     With   this  poinl   of  view   the 

science  of  language  will  have  largely  to  deal,  we  arc  persuaded,  in  the  sec 
ond  century  of  its  existei 


Vol.  11       Wheeler. — Tin  Modern  Scienct  of  Language.  1  <  >T 

modern  science  of  language  has  fairly  shaken  itself  free  again 
from  the  natural  sciences  and  from  such  influences  of  their 
method  and  analogies  as  were  intruded  upon  it  by  Schleicher  and 
his  period  lSfiO-Ml  .  and  after  a  century  of  groping  and  experi- 
ment has  definitely  oriented  and  found  itself  as  a  social  science 

dealing  with  an  institution  which  represents  i •>■  intimately  ami 

exactly  than  any  other  the  total  life  of  man  in  the  historically 
determined  society  of  men. 

Within  the  history  of  the  science  of  language  the  beginning 
of  the  nineteenth  century  establishes  beyond  doubt  a  most  impor- 
tant frontier.  To  appreciate  how  sharp  is  the  contrast  between 
hither  ami  yonder  we  have  only  to  turn  to  any  part  or  phase  of 
the  work  yonder. — the  derivation  of  Latin  from  Greek,  or  may- 
hap, to  be  most  utterly  scientific,  from  the  Aeolic  dialect  of  Greek, 
the  sane  libration  of  the  claims  of  Dutch  as  against  Hebrew  to 
be  the  original  language  of  mankind,  the  bondage  to  the  forms  of 
Greek  and  Latin  grammar  as  well  as  to  the  traditional  point  of 
view  of  the  philosophical  grammar  of  the  Greeks,  the  snbordina- 
nation  of  grammar  to  logic,  the  hopeless  etymologies  and  form 
analyses  culminating  in  the  phantasies  of  Hemsterhuis  and 
Valckenaeer,  the  lack  of  any  guiding  clue  for  the  explanation  of 
how  sound  or  form  came  to  be  what  it  is.  and  the  curse  of  arid 
sterility  that  rested  upon  every  effort.  All  the  ways  were  blind  and 
all  the  toil  was  vain.  On  the  hither  side,  however,  there  is  every- 
where a  new  leaven  working  in  the  mass.  What  was  that  leaven  .' 
To  identify  if  possible  what  it  was  has  been  the  purpose  of  this 
review.  I  think  we  have  seen  it  was  not  the  influence  of  the 
natural  sciences,  certainly  not  directly;  wherever  that  infiuenci 
found  direct  application  it  led  astray.  It  was  not  in  itself  the 
discovery  of  the  comparative  method,  for  that  proved  but  an 
auxiliary  to  a  greater.  If  a  founder  must  lie  proclaimed  for  the 
model  n  science  of  language,  that  founder  was  clearly  Jakob 
( irimm.  not  Franz  Bopp. 

The  leaven  in  question  was  comprised  of  two  elements.  One 
was  found  in  the  establishment  of  historical  grammar,  for  this 
furnished  the  long-needed  elm-:  the  other  was  found  in  the  dis- 
covery of  Hindoo  grammar,  for  this  disclosed  the  fruitful  atti- 
tude for  linguistic  observation.     Historical  grammar  furnished 


108  University  of  California  Publications.    [Clabs.Phil. 

the  missing  clue,  because  it  represented  the  Form  of  language  as 
created,  whal  it  is.  nol  by  the  thought  struggling  for  expression, 

bul  by  historical  conditions  anl Ien1  to  it.     Hindoo  grammar 

Furnished  the  method  of  observation  because  by  its  Fundamental 
instinct  it  asked  the  question  how  in  a  given  language  does  one 
say  a  given  thing,  ratlin-  than  why  does  a  given  form  embodj  the 
thoughl  it  dues. 

The  germinal  forces  which  have  made  this  century  of  the  sci 
ence  of  Language  are  aol  withoul  their  parallels  in  the  century 
of  American  national  life  we  arc  me1  to  celebrate  today     Jakob 
Grimm  was  of  the  school  of  the  Romanticists  and  he  gained  his 
conception  of  historical  grammar  from  his  ardor  to  derive  the 

institutions  of  his  | pie  direct  from  their  sources  in  the  national 

life.    The  acquaintance  of  European  scholars  with  the  grammar 

of  India  arose  from  a  counter-spirit  in  the  world  of  the  day 
whereby  an  expansion  of  intercourse  and  rule  was  bringing  to  the 
wine-press  fruits  plucked  in  many  various  fields  of  national  life. 
Thus  diil  the  spirit  of  national  particularism  reconcile  itself,  in 
the  experience  of  a  science,  with  tile  fruits  of  national  expansion. 
After  like  sort  has  tin'  American  nation  in  its  development  for 
tin'  century  following  Upon  the  typical  event  of  l.-li:;  coiiihined 
the  widening  of  peaceful  interchange  and  common  standards  of 
order  with  strong  insistence  upon  the  righl  of  separate  cm uni- 
ties in  things  pertaining  separately  to  them  to  determine  their 
lives  out  of  the  sources  thereof.  Then  in  has  the  nation  given 
fuliilliiient  to  the  prophetic  hope  of  its  -real  democratic  imperial- 
ist, Thomas  Jefferson,1  "]  am  persuaded  no  constitution  was  ever 

before  so  well  calculated  as  ours  for  extensive  empire  and  self- 
government.  " 

The  linguistic  science  of  the  second  century  will  build  upon 

the    plateau    leveled    by    the    varied    toils   and    experiences   of   the 

first.  More  than  ever  those  who  are  to  read  I  lie  lessons  of  human 
speech  will  gain  their  power  through  intimate  sympathetic 
acquaintance  with  the  historically  conceived  material  of  the  indi- 
vidual language.  Hut  though  the  wide  rangings  of  the  compara- 
tive method  have  for  the  time  abated  somewhat  of  their  interest 


■Letter  t..  Mr.   M.i.lis.  i 


Vol.  i]     Wheeler.— The  Moduli  Science  of  Language.  I1 '!• 

and  their  yield,  it  will  remain  that  he  who  would  have  Larges! 
vision  must  gain  perspective  by  frequent  resort  to  the  extra-mural 
lookouts.  Language  is  an  offprint  of  human  life,  and  to  the 
student  of  human  speech  nothing  linguistic  can  be  ever  foreign 


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